One of the great motifs or themes of world literature is the Journey. Our classic touchstone is Homer and his Iliad and Odyessy , stories of Odysseus's travels to war and his long journey home.

The Canterbury Tales is the story of a journey in which the participants tell tales to entertain themselves.

Some of the great modern stories are sometimes similarly tales of journeys:

• Heart of Darkness
• 'Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock'

Useful distinction between those two:

• One is a search for something; the other is a stroll apparently without meaning.
• One is for a purpose; the other is a kind of tourism -- though it might be argued that Prufrock's journey involves a kind of search.

Early Australian writing often involves a journey, a journey that is often involuntary. Most people who come to Australia do so unwillingly and transportation is sometimes seen to be something worse than hanging. It is a journey into despair:

‘Labouring with the Hoe' [read]

There are many other songs and poems that share a similar sense of regret of leaving behind family and friends and established patterns of life.

Many journey narratives are also loaded with the notion of a Quest. So Odysseus travels with a quest to beat his enemies; and then his quest is to get home to his wife Penelope. The quest narrative is the story of a journey with a goal.

One significant journey (and quest) narrative is the descent into hell.

Pre-eminent among these is Dante's Divine Comedy , a long poem in which the poet travels to:

1. Inferno
2. Purgatory
3. Paradise

The poem is allegorical and speaks to the religious, ethical and moral dimensions of being human.

Dante's descent into Hell is moreover a necessary part of reaching Paradise .

An interesting aspect of Dante's Hell is that people there were punished in ways that related to their sins on Earth. For example, fortune tellers were punished by being physically forced to look backwards for eternity. Hell becomes a place of inversion or upside-downness. See Barron Field's 'The Kangaroo'.

Rachel Falconer Hell in Contemporary Literature. (2005)

Describes this narrative as Katabasis -- a ‘going down'. Stories in which the hero goes down to hell in order to return having developed in some way – spiritually, morally, intellectually.

Katabatic narratives offer writers a positive structure out of which a self is created through adversity.

This is an interesting framework to read much of the early Australian material, especially that by Francis Macnamara (FtP)

“A Convict's Tour to Hell”

The classic Katabatic narrative in which the hero descends into Hell and sees those who have persecuted him suffering for their sins – after which he ascends to Heaven and is made welcome.

Hell is clearly populated by those who have made Frank's life Hell on earth in Australia .

Does his narrative have a sense of quest?

Perhaps not. Perhaps it's quite a conservative Christian narrative that argues that the oppressed will inherit Heaven in due course. Mcnamara's is a narrative of revelation and not of action. He doesn't fight, struggle or strive but merely observes and learns.

Though maybe this suggestion is undercut by the fact of the dream narrative from which the poet awakens.

Is the message a katabatic one: does the poet create a self through adversity? Just how does this Hell function?

I think we need to see ambiguity and ambivalence and possibly insincerity in Macnamara's use of Hell.

Read “On Leaving Van Diemen's Land”

This poem raises the idea that Australia is not all Hell.

This goes even further in an early ballad, "Farewell to Your Judges and Juries" (1815), which also refuses the idea that leaving England or being sent to Australia are in themselves the source of despair.

To go to a strange country don't grieve me,
Nor leaving old England behind,
It's all for the sake of my Polly, love,
And leaving my parents behind.

Stephen Knight suggests, in The Selling of the Australian Mind, that in “spite of Geoffrey Blainey's memorable summary, distance could be not so much a tyranny as a liberation. Travel to Australia was also travel away from a set of patterns and into a different set of possibilities”.

This points to a positive side to exile and leaving old England .

Raises the question that Hell (like the Western Suburbs) might not be so much as place as it is a state of mind.

What is Hell?

Literal Abrahamic Hell:

• Physically. Hell is a physical place where people go to be punished.
• Spiritually. Hell is a place that exists on a spiritual level where our souls go to be punished.

Scientist and Bible teacher, Henry Morris says the Bible plainly teaches that hell is in this earth:

"So far as we can tell from Scripture, the present hell, is somewhere in the heart of the earth itself. It is also called 'the pit' (Isa. 14:9, 15: Ezek. 32:18-21) and 'the abyss' (Rev. 9:2). . . The writers certainly themselves believed hell to be real and geographically 'beneath' the earth's surface. . . To say this is not scientific is to assume science knows much more about the earth's interior than is actually the case. The great 'pit' [hell] would only need to be about 100 miles or less in diameter to contain, with much room to spare, all the forty billion or so people who have ever lived, assuming their 'spiritual' bodies are the same size as their physical bodies. "
(Henry M. Morris, The Bible Has the Answer , p. 220)

That's one way of looking at it. It sees Hell as a literal and physical place, much like the one imagined in The Divine Comedy.

The other is to see Hell through a more secular frame.

Secular Hell

Secular Hell is a combination of environmental and human factors.

• a physical place on earth of torment, of evil, of never-ending pain and toil.
• An emotional or psychological space of torment

And the texts we look at certainly paint Australia as a secular hell in all senses:

Moreton Bay (NB this version differs from the one in your reader)

One Sunday morning as I went walking
By Brisbane waters I chanced to stray
I heard a convict his fate bewailing
As on the sunny river bank I lay
I am a native from Erin's island
But banished now from my native shore
They stole me from my aged parents
And from the maiden I do adore

I've been a prisoner at Port Macquarie
At Norfolk Island and Emu Plains
At Castle Hill and at cursed Toongabbie
At all these settlements I've been in chains
But of all places of condemnation
And penal stations in New South Wales
To Moreton Bay I have found no equal
Excessive tyranny each day prevails

For three long years I was beastly treated
And heavy irons on my legs I wore
My back from flogging was lacerated
And oft times painted with my crimson gore
And many a man from downright starvation
Lies mouldering now underneath the clay
And Captain Logan he had us mangled
All at the triangles of Moreton Bay

Like the Egyptians and ancient Hebrews
We were oppressed under Logan's yoke
Till a native black lying there in ambush
Did deal this tyrant his mortal stroke
My fellow prisoners be exhilarated
That all such monsters such a death may find
And when from bondage we are liberated
Our former sufferings will fade from mind

But how seriously are we to take these works? We should distrust the writings we come across.

Richard White in Inventing Australia sees Hell as one of the tools used by the ruling class to keep the working class in check.

The equation of Hell with Botany Bay means that the threat of transportation has an equally mollifying effect on the working class.

the idea of Botany Bay as hell on earth was spread for mass consumption in the very cheapest form . . . These books were pandering to a taste for tales of low life in London and of violence in Boptany Bay, and were published in the hope of commercial success. Yet they reinforced the moral and economic function of Botany bay in the control of working class crime in Britain

The quite radical suggestion here is that Australia was not quite the hell on earth it was being painted in Britain . This is not to suggest that there was no brutality in the colony but it is to argue that there was also light and progress and a positive side to the journey as I mentioned before.

Australia as Paradise

The other side to the argument then is that Australia was a Paradise. And there's an interesting side to Macnamara's writings that do in fact posit a Paradise to be gained in Australia -- or do they?

Henry Lawson sees a possible paradise in Australia but it is one that is made by people and not given by god. He acknowledges the negatives of exile and transportation but sees a radical political freedom and potential for the displaced.

Henry Lawson, 'Freedom on the Wallaby' FR

AD Hope's 'Australia' (first published in the 1950s) makes the suggestion that behind the apparent Hell, we have inherited a spiritual paradise.

So there are two Australia's: one a Hell and the other a paradise, often depending on which reports you believe.

Migrants to Australia were often attracted by the paradisal rhetooric of the Australian government's advertisements.

In Rosa Capiello's O Lucky Country the migrants arrive expecting paradise but are sadly disappointed. Hell and paradise references pepper the opening pages.

Read

We assume some measure of autobiography because the author was dissatisfied with Australia and returned. She descended into Hell and then returned. Was her trip katabatic?

Question:

Did the "Where the Bloody Hell Are You?" campaign falter because the British still have a hangover of that old attitude towards Australia?