2.0 Literature Review

Anderson, Cheetham, Grice and Marshall (1990) reported on The Use of Technology in Adult Literacy Programs in a study conducted under the auspices of the Adult Literacy Action Campaign, as part of the then Federal government's National Policy on Languages. The study developed an evaluation framework which was the basis for considering the potential of a comprehensive range of technologies as provided by ratings on different criteria by managers, teachers and students of adult literacy. It also developed a reference guide for evaluating computer software.

The report includes a case study of computers as tools in adult literacy based on observations and interviews at Giles Plains TAFE, South Australia. Its literature review drew attention to findings from research in the 1980s which had suggested that computer applications were likely to be more effective in teaching lower level word analysis skills and less effective in teaching higher level comprehension skills. Several writers had also drawn attention to the explosion of word processing programs, most of which had not been evaluated. The literature demonstrated that adult literacy students reacted very positively to the use of computers in their literacy courses because it provided privacy, immediate feedback, individualisation (with every student's literacy needs being different), control and flexibility.

The South Australian case study indicated how students were inducted into learning to achieve the goals they wished to achieve and the choice they had as to whether to work with computers or on print based materials. Observation of practice over 10 sessions showed students moving between texts and machines, and it was rare to find a student spending the whole session on the computer. Students rated computers very positively in terms of expectations, needs, feedback, interest level, learning and ease of use. From the point of view of the teacher/manager of the group, computers were perceived to be an effective means of providing appropriate, interesting, easy-to-use programs which allow students to achieve their individual learning objectives. The study also sought an administrator's perspective. The cost of computer-based literacy programs was considered the least favourable aspect. These costs included purchase of hardware, time of staff evaluating software and deciding how they could be incorporated into the teaching program, and the costs of developing computer literacy skills across the entire workforce, especially in a service which relies heavily on a large volunteer input. It was perceived to be important to decide clearly the objective to be realised, and then the hardware/software that could be afforded to do it.

The study concluded that, "students, teacher and administrator, all believe significant learning occurs through the effective use of computers. The key word is effective. Being effective involves providing appropriate, interesting, easy-to-use programs. Further it involves matching the learning task with student objectives" (p 43).

Javed (1996) reported on development of on-line skills by adult literacy professionals who were provided with material support via modems, Internet connections and technical assistance through workshops, visits and mailing lists. Access to computers and the quality of Internet access played an important role in helping people to learn and make good use of technology. Teachers were able to use the services better from their homes compared to the worksite due to the difficulties in access to computers at suitable times at their worksites. Organisational procedures and policies over hardware and software infrastructure within individual workplaces influenced uptake of on-line technologies significantly. Teachers with more flexible choices over hardware, software and network seemed to be able to demonstrate innovative teaching and learning with on-line technologies.

A number of studies have addressed issues related to on-line technology, access to and use of the Internet by professional educators and learners.

These include:

1. The use of on-line technology by professionals in adult education and their perceptions of its potential.

2. The skills that on-line technology may promote in adult learners.

3. The perceived benefits and drawbacks of on-line technology for adult learning

In the United States, Starr and Milheim (1996) accessed 30 education and training news groups through an Internet search and received 147 replies to the electronic survey they conducted on "educational uses of the Internet". Of the respondents 3 in 4 worked in Colleges or Universities, 37% were in the 40-49 age group and 25% in the 50-59 age group. On average those surveyed made 10.2 accesses of the Internet per week. Just under 3 in 4 had Internet access from work, and 4 in 5 had access from home. When asked about how their Internet skills had been acquired, 9 in 10 said that they had learned from personal experience, while 2 in 3 stated that they had received help from a friend; half had also learned from a journal or book, while fewer than half had attended a class or learned from conference presentations. Furthermore, 9 in 10 used e-mail, world wide Web and listservs while 3 in 5 used newsgroups. 4 in 5 used Internet for personal research and work, 7 in 10 used it for library access and 2 in 5 used it for accessing class materials and supporting student research. 2 in 3 believed that the impact of on-line technology on education would be very positive, and the great majority of the remainder thought that it would be positive. A study of adult education teachers by Rosen (1996), also in the United States, found that personal time commitment was an important factor in skill mastering.

Benefits of on-line technologies in conversational and didactic writing in both synchronous (MOO) and asynchronous (e-mail) communication by adult literacy and ESL students are widely documented. (Pobega 1997; Butler 1997; Javed 1996; Daly 1996; Davies, L Shield, L & Weininger 1998).

In an exploratory study of On-line and Off-line texts Krause (1995) investigated transference of students' writing skills from on-line interactivity to off-line formal writing. Comparing on-line and off-line texts produced by 20 first year students of a writing class Krause found no significant correlation between on-line interactivity and off-line writing. However, the study showed a strong correlation between number of e-mail posts and level of interactivity suggesting that those who participated most in the community were those who were most active in an on-line environment.

Krause argued that, rather than focusing our attention on how on-line writing will improve students' off line writing, we need to think in terms of benefits of on-line writing environments as these provided his students with a sense of purpose and real audience. Students posting to the listserv knew that others would read their messages because they had read the messages of their colleagues and received answers. Krause noted that, when this writing context shifted to off-line composition for class purposes, students who were more than able to get their points across in the on-line environment wrote stilted and stiff prose in off-line environment.

Anderson et al (1990) suggested that computers could be useful for teaching low level literacy skills. However, Marttunen (1997) has suggested that computers can also teach practical reasoning skills to students in higher education. Marttunen studied the potential of on-line technology for teaching skills of argumentation. His subjects were University students enrolled in a Master of Education course in the Sociology of Education in Finland. The study compared students being taught argumentation by conventional means and on-line over a six week period. In addition the role of the teacher in each situation varied in terms of whether they acted as facilitator or leader. The on-line group being supported by staff in the facilitating role proved most successful. Marttunen argued that on-line technology facilitated development of argumentation skills by freeing combatants from face-to-face distractions related to age and sex. Shy persons, and those who are slow to formulate arguments, were also seen to be advantaged by the technology. The medium focused attention on the quality of the text and its argument rather than on extraneous factors such as rhetorical tropes or interpersonal pressures. At the same time the pressures inherent in the use of on-line technology in certain situations may mean that fragmentary and ill-considered texts are constructed.

This limited literature review suggests that ALBE students are positive about learning with computers, and that professional development may assist those working in adult literacy to exploit the potential of the new technologies. It appears that professionals who exploit the potential of on-line technology and develop links with on-line learning communities invariably have home access to the Internet. They cover a wide age span and learn the skills mainly on their own or supported by a colleague rather than through a course. On-line technology has also been shown to be a medium through which practical reasoning and argument skills - relevant for CGEA learning outcomes - may be developed. Previous ALRNNV projects (1996-97) have shown that in most ALBE sites there is a willingness to implement NLTs. The report of the Information Technology Project for Adult Literacy (Javed, 1996) pointed to a need for on-going professional development and training for ALBE staff. The report also suggested that research in this area should aim to explore training and professional development needs of ALBE teachers and the use of NLTs in classroom practice. Ways of conceptualising professional development of teachers have been explored recently by Eraut (1994). One of the best known models is by Benner (1984), who conceptualised professional development of nurses as a progression through stages from 'novice' to 'expert'. The boundaries between stages, and the factors which promote development across stages, are, however, matters requiring research.